The Pre-Freedom Fight Era: The Arrival of Europeans and the Start of Colonization

The colonization of India begins with the arrival of Europeans, starting with the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reaching Calicut on May 20, 1498. This momentous event marked the opening of a new era that would lead to centuries of European dominance and the eventual struggle for India's independence.

From the early 15th century, Portuguese expeditions, organized by Prince Henry the Navigator, had been reaching down the African coastline, primarily in search of West African riches. These expeditions extended Portuguese maritime knowledge but yielded little profit. However, with the ascension of John II to the Portuguese throne in 1481, the focus shifted towards establishing a direct sea route to Asia. This route was critical for breaking into the lucrative spice trade, which was then monopolized by the Republic of Venice through overland routes.

Vasco da Gama, leading a fleet of four ships and 170 men, set sail from Lisbon on July 8, 1497, on a mission to reach the rich spice markets of India. Despite numerous challenges, including a perilous journey around the Cape of Good Hope, da Gama's fleet arrived in Calicut (now known as Kozhikode) on May 20, 1498. Anchored off the coast, the Portuguese invited native fishermen on board and bought some Indian items. One Portuguese accompanied the fishermen to the port and met with a Tunisian Muslim. On the advice of this man, Gama sent a couple of his men to Ponnani to meet with the ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin. Over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama managed to secure a letter of concession for trading rights from the Zamorin, but the Portuguese were unable to pay the prescribed customs duties and price of his goods in gold. Annoyed by this, Gama carried off a few natives and sixteen fishermen with him by force.

Despite these challenges, Gama's expedition was successful beyond all reasonable expectations, bringing in cargo worth sixty times the cost of the expedition. His successful voyage demonstrated the potential for a sea route to Asia, paving the way for future expeditions.

The follow-up expedition, the Second India Armada, launched in 1500 under Pedro Álvares Cabral, aimed to solidify Portuguese presence in India by making a treaty with the Zamorin and establishing a Portuguese factory in Kozhikode. However, matters worsened when the Portuguese factory was ambushed by locals, resulting in the deaths of more than fifty Portuguese. Outraged, Cabral seized ten Arab merchant ships anchored in the harbor, killing about six hundred of their crew, confiscating their cargo, and promptly burning the ships. Cabral ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in retaliation. He succeeded in making advantageous treaties with local rulers in Cochin and Cannanore, starting the return voyage on January 16, 1501.

In response to these conflicts, Vasco da Gama led the Fourth India Armada in 1502, a heavily armed fleet aimed at enforcing Portuguese terms through force. The expedition resulted in violent confrontations, including the notorious burning of a Muslim pilgrim ship and the bombardment of Kozhikode. Da Gama demanded the expulsion of all Muslims from Calicut, which was turned down. The Zamorin showed willingness to sign a treaty, but Gama bombarded the city and captured several rice vessels after learning that the Zamorin was messaging neighboring rulers to join him in resisting the Portuguese. These actions disrupted trade along the Malabar Coast and solidified Portuguese dominance in the region.

Despite the aggressive tactics, Vasco da Gama's missions ultimately failed to bring the Zamorin to submission. However, they established a foothold for Portuguese influence in India, marking the beginning of European colonization. The Portuguese Crown continued to expand its control, leading to the colonization of Mozambique and the eventual establishment of a Portuguese colonial empire in Asia.

In 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed the first Viceroy of India, tasked with establishing forts on the southwestern Indian coast at Anjediva, Cannanore, Cochin, and Quilon. Almeida's expeditions resulted in the construction of Fort Anjediva and Fort St. Angelo in Cannanore. Despite facing opposition from the Zamorin's fleet, Almeida's forces triumphed in the Battle of Cannanore in 1506, and his son, Lourenço de Almeida, secured Portuguese interests by destroying Calicut vessels in Quilon.

Afonso de Albuquerque, appointed as the second governor in 1509, further solidified Portuguese control by capturing Goa in 1510 with the help of the Hindu privateer Timoja. Albuquerque's governance extended to the capture of Malacca in 1511 and Ormus in 1515, promoting the settlement of Portuguese soldiers and their marriage to native women. His policies of justice and support for local communities made him a revered figure, even among the Hindu natives of Goa.

The Portuguese continued to expand their territory throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, acquiring colonies such as Daman, Salsette, the seven islands of Bombay, Chaul, Bassein (Vasai), and Diu. These areas came to be known as the Northern Province of Portuguese India. Significant battles, such as the Siege of Diu in 1538, demonstrated the resilience of Portuguese forces against overwhelming odds.

By the 18th century, most of the Northern Province was lost following a Maratha invasion in 1739. However, territories such as Goa, Daman, Diu, and Anjediva were retained, leading to the expansion of Portuguese control in the region known as the Novas Conquistas. Reforms by the Marquis de Pombal in the mid-18th century granted equal standing to native Christians and promoted religious freedom.

The Conspiracy of the Pintos in 1787 marked one of the first anti-colonial revolts in India, led by prominent priests from the Pinto clan. Despite challenges, the Portuguese continued to maintain control over their territories, with Goa becoming the administrative seat of their Estado in 1843.

During the Second World War, Portugal remained neutral. Axis ships sought refuge in Goa to avoid being sunk or captured by the British Royal Navy. The British backed a covert raid using members of the Calcutta Light Horse, who sank the German merchant ship Ehrenfels. This action caused other Axis crews to scuttle their ships, fearing capture.

From 1945 to 1961, tensions between India and Portugal increased. In 1954, the United Front of Goans and Azad Gomantak Dal seized control of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Satyagrahis protesting Portuguese rule were violently suppressed, leading to India breaking off diplomatic relations and imposing an economic embargo on Portuguese Goa.

In December 1961, India invaded the remaining Portuguese possessions. The Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender on December 19, 1961, ending 450 years of Portuguese rule in India. Goa, Daman, and Diu became new territories of the Indian Union, with Goa achieving full statehood on May 30, 1987.

The arrival of Vasco da Gama and subsequent expeditions by the Portuguese set the stage for the colonization of India. The interactions, conflicts, and establishment of trade routes during this period laid the foundation for the various European powers that would follow, leading to centuries of foreign domination and the eventual struggle for Indian independence.